Coming Out: Queer Erasure and Censorship from the Middle Ages to Modernity

 Portuguese East Africa

A European search for a quicker way to get to South Asia was driven by the availability of goods including textiles, spices, and gold. In 1460, the Portuguese traveled to Sierra Leone along the West African coast as a result of this hunt. Portugal controlled world trade for about 200 years, from the fifteenth to the sixteenth century

Africa and Asia

The age of exploration and colonization marked a significant global shift as European powers, particularly the Portuguese, sought control over lucrative trade routes and resources. This expansionist agenda involved a systematic effort to displace indigenous populations, particularly in Africa and Asia. Driven by economic motives, European powers constructed forts and trading posts along the coasts of Africa and Asia, serving as key hubs for trade and allowing for the extraction of valuable resources. This endeavor often entailed the use of military force, resulting in the displacement and marginalization of indigenous communities.

Religious orders played a pivotal role in the process of colonization, with missionaries dispatched alongside explorers and traders to convert local populations to Christianity. This dual strategy of economic exploitation and religious conversion further marginalized and disrupted the traditional ways of life of indigenous people. In Africa, the Portuguese aggressively targeted the Swahili Coast, sinking ships and attacking cities to establish dominance, while simultaneously seeking to undermine the influence of Islam deeply ingrained in the Swahili identity.

 

Vasco da Gama e o Reide Melindel 

As the Portuguese expanded, armed with superior weapons and a ruthless strategy, they wreaked havoc among the Swahili city-states along the East African coast. Exploiting rivalries between city-states like Malindi and Mombasa, the Portuguese achieved dominance in key locations such as Malindi, Mombasa, Pemba, Sofala, and Kilwa. Constructing forts to solidify their control, the Portuguese engaged in cooperation with non-Portuguese traders, realizing the impracticality of policing the entire Indian Ocean.

Portuguese forts East Africa 15th century

Portuguese expansion extended to India, notably with the establishment of Portuguese Goa in 1510, aiming to control both sides of the Indian Ocean. This led to repeated attacks on the Swahili Coast from their Indian colonies, resulting in the destruction and refortification of cities like Kilwa by Portuguese cannons. Further expansion into the Kingdom of Abyssinia in 1536 initially succeeded in an alliance against Islamic forces but faltered due to conflicts between Jesuit missionaries and indigenous priests, leading to the expulsion of the Europeans.

Portuguese cannons

A critical flaw in Portuguese foreign policy was their disregard for establishing mutually beneficial trade arrangements with Swahili cities or African kingdoms. Their aggressive stance against rival traders and the extraction of valuable commodities at minimal cost contributed to the decline of the Swahili coast.

In the Mutapa Kingdom, established around 1450 in modern-day northern Zimbabwe and southern Zambia, Portuguese interference led to a decline in influence. Attempting to establish trade markets in 1530, the Portuguese faced resistance due to conflicts over religious conversion, internal strife, and limited economic benefits. As Mutapa faced challenges, alternative trade routes emerged, bypassing the region and diminishing the strategic importance of Portuguese-controlled forts.

In summary, the Portuguese pursuit of dominance in trade and resources had far-reaching consequences, causing displacement, cultural disruption, and the imposition of foreign religions. This era marked a pivotal point in world history, shaping the trajectory of societies and leaving a lasting impact on the cultural, economic, and religious landscapes of Africa and Asia.

Portuguese India

The State of India, also known as Portuguese India, was established by Portugal six years after Vasco da Gama discovered a sea route to the Indian subcontinent. Founded in the early 16th century, its capital, initially at Fort Manuel and later transferred to Goa, served as the center for governing military forts and trading posts scattered across the Indian Ocean.

Aguada fort

The primary motivations behind Portuguese involvement in India were centered on trade and the desire for control over lucrative trade routes. Francisco de Almeida, the first viceroy, established a base in Fort Manuel after Cochin became a Portuguese protectorate in 1505. The conquest of Goa in 1510 further solidified Portugal's strategic position in the Indian Ocean, making it a major anchorage for Portuguese Armadas.

Portuguese Armadas

Trade played a crucial role in Portuguese India's existence, with control over trade routes seen as essential for economic dominance. The Portuguese sought to capitalize on the lucrative spice trade in Asia and establish dominance in trade routes connecting East Africa and the Indian subcontinent.

spice trade 

Religious conversion was another significant aspect of Portuguese activities in India. Missionaries accompanied explorers and traders intending to convert local populations to Christianity. This dual strategy of economic exploitation through trade and religious conversion was a common approach by European powers during the Age of Exploration.

Religious conversion

Over time, Portugal's authority in the region diminished, and by the 18th century, the viceroy's control was limited to specific regions along the west coast of India. Despite initial control over vast territories, the decline was influenced by heavy competition from European and Indian rivals.

European influences

The dissolution of Portuguese India began with the loss of territories like Mozambique, Macao, Solor, and Timor. By the mid-20th century, the Salazar regime faced challenges, leading to the loss of de facto control over Dadra and Nagar Haveli in 1954. Ultimately, the Indian Annexation of Goa in 1961 marked the end of Portuguese rule in the region, with official recognition by Portugal coming after the Carnation Revolution in 1974.

Throughout its existence, Portuguese India's pursuits were driven by trade, economic dominance, and religious conversion in the context of the broader European colonial expansion.

Portuguese and Dutch

During the Age of Exploration, the Dutch had a profound impact on Portuguese territories and trade through a series of strategic and military maneuvers. One significant area of contention was the spice trade, particularly in the Moluccas (Spice Islands). The Dutch sought to challenge Portuguese dominance in this lucrative trade, leading to naval conflicts and confrontations in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia.

The establishment of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1602 marked a pivotal development. This powerful trading company, backed by its military capabilities, played a crucial role in Dutch colonial expansion. Armed with the resources of the VOC, the Dutch aimed to challenge Portuguese control in various regions, creating a formidable competitor in the race for dominance in trade routes and colonies.

The Dutch successes were not limited to naval conflicts; they conducted military campaigns that resulted in the capture of key Portuguese-held territories. In 1605, the Dutch seized the Portuguese fortress of Amboina in the Moluccas, and in 1641, they captured Malacca, a significant Portuguese trading post in Southeast Asia. These victories significantly weakened Portuguese influence in the regions.

The decline of Portuguese hegemony in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia was a direct consequence of Dutch victories and strategic prowess. The Dutch not only challenged Portuguese naval power but also established their own network of trading posts and colonies, effectively replacing Portuguese dominance with their own.

The impact of Dutch influence was particularly evident in the spice trade. Once major players in this commerce, the Portuguese faced increasing challenges from the Dutch, leading to a decline in their control over the lucrative spice routes. The Dutch's ability to oust the Portuguese from key spice-producing regions reshaped the economic landscape of the time.

The legacy of Dutch influence persisted long after military victories. The Dutch established enduring colonies, particularly in Indonesia, where they continued to shape trade and commerce for centuries. Portuguese territories and trading posts gradually gave way to Dutch-controlled ones, marking a transformative shift in the geopolitical and economic dynamics of the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia during the Age of Exploration.